Chandelas of khajuraho
The Chandelas of Jejakabhukti were a royal dynasty in Central India. They ruled much of the Bundelkhand region (then called Jejakabhukti) between the 9th and the 13th centuries. The Chandelas initially ruled as feudatories of the Gurjara-Pratiharas of Kanyakubja (Kannauj). The 10th century Chandela ruler Yashovarman became practically independent, although he continued to acknowledge the Pratihara suzerainty. By the time of his successor Dhanga, the Chandelas had become a sovereign power. Their power rose and declined as they fought battles with the neighbouring dynasties, especially the Paramaras of Malwa and the Kalachuris of Tripuri. From the 11th century onwards, the Chandelas faced raids by the northern Muslim dynasties, including the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids. The Chandela power effectively ended around the beginning of the 13th century, following Chahamana and Ghurid invasions.
The Chandelas are well known for their art and architecture, most notably for the temples at their original capital Khajuraho. They also commissioned a number of temples, water bodies, palaces and forts at other places, including their strongholds of Ajaigarh, Kalinjar and their later capital Mahoba.
The origin of the Chandelas is obscured by mythical legends. The epigraphic records of the dynasty, as well as contemporary texts such as Balabhadra-vilasa and Prabodha-chandrodaya, suggest that the Chandelas belonged to the legendary Lunar dynasty (Chandravansha). A 954 CE Khajuraho inscription states that the dynasty’s first king Nannuka was a descendant of sage Chandratreya, who was a son of Atri. A 1002 CE Khajuraho inscription gives a slightly different account, in which Chandratreya is mentioned as a son of Indu (the Moon) and a grandson of Atri. The 1195 CE Baghari inscription and the 1260 CE Ajaygadh inscription contain similar mythical accounts. The Balabhadra-vilasa also names Atri among the ancestors of the Chandelas. Another Khajuraho inscription describes the Chandela king Dhanga as a member of the Vrishni clan of the Yadavas.
The later medieval texts include Chandelas among the 36 Rajput clans. These include Mahoba-Khanda, Varna Ratnakara, Prithviraj Raso and Kumarapala-charita. The Mahoba-Khanda legend of the dynasty’s origin goes like this: Hemaraja, a priest of the Gaharwar king of Benares, had a beautiful daughter named Hemavati. Once, while Hemavati was bathing in a pond, the moon god Chandra saw her and made love to her. Hemavati was worried about the dishonour of being an unwed mother, but Chandra assured her that their son would become a great king. This child was the dynasty’s progenitor Chandravarma. Chandra presented him with a philosopher’s stone and taught him politics. The dynasty’s own records do not mention Hemavati, Hemaraja or Indrajit. Such legends appear to be later bardic inventions. In general, the Mahoba-Khanda is a historically unreliable text.
The British indologist V. A. Smith theorized that the Chandelas were of either Bhar or Gond origin. Some other scholars including R. C. Majumdar also supported this theory. The Chandelas worshipped Maniya, a tribal goddess, whose temples are located at Mahoba and Maniyagadh. Besides, they have been associated with places that are also associated with Bhars and Gonds. Also, Rani Durgavati, whose family claimed Chandela descent married a Gond chief of Garha-Mandla. Historian R. K. Dikshit does not find these arguments convincing: he argues that Maniya was not a tribal deity. Also, the dynasty’s association with Gond territory is not necessarily indicative of a common descent: the dynasty’s progenitor may have been posted as a governor in these territories.Finally, Durgavati’s marriage to a Gond chief can be dismissed as a one-off case.
Early rulers
The Chandelas were originally vassals of the Gurjara-Pratiharas. Nannuka (r. c. 831-845 CE), the founder of the dynasty, was the ruler of a small kingdom centered around Khajuraho. According to the Chandela inscriptions, Nannuka’s successor Vakpati defeated several enemies.Vakpati’s sons Jayashakti (Jeja) and Vijayashakti (Vija) consolidated the Chandela power.According to a Mahoba inscription, the Chandela territory was named “Jejakabhukti” after the Jayashakti. Vijayashakti’s successor Rahila is credited with several military victories in eulogistic inscriptions. Rahila’s son Harsha played an important role in restoring the rule of the Pratihara king Mahipala, possibly after a Rashtrakuta invasion or after Mahiapala’s conflict with his step-brother Bhoja II.
Rise as a sovereign power
Harsha’s son Yashovarman (r. c. 925-950 CE) continued to acknowledge the Pratihara suzerainty, but became practically independent. He conquered the important fortress of Kalanjara. A 953-954 CE Khajuraho inscription credits him with several other military successes, including against Gaudas (identified with the Palas), the Khasas, the Chedis (the Kalachuris of Tripuri), the Kosalas (possibly the Somavamshis), the Mithila (possibly a small tributary ruler), Malavas (identified with the Paramaras), the Kurus, the Kashmiris and the Gurjaras. These claims appear to be exaggerated, as similar claims of extensive conquests in northern India are also found in the records of the other contemporary kings such as the Kalachuri king Yuva-Raja and the Rashtrakuta king Krishna III. Yashovarman’s reign marked the beginning of the famous Chandela-era art and architecture. He commissioned the Lakshmana Temple at Khajuraho.
Unlike the earlier Chandela inscriptions, the records of Yashovarman’s successor Dhanga (r. c. 950-999 CE) do not mention any Pratihara overlord. This indicates that Dhanga formally established the Chandela sovereignty. A Khajuraho inscription claims that the rulers of Kosala, Kratha (part of Vidarbha region), Kuntala, and Simhala listened humbly to the commands of Dhanga’s officers. It also claims that the wives of the kings of Andhra, Anga, Kanchi and Raḍha resided in his prisons as a result of his success in wars. These appear to be eulogistic exaggerations by a court poet, but suggest that Dhanga did undertake extensive military campaigns. Like his predecessor, Dhanga also commissioned a magnificent temple at Khajuraho, which is identified as the Vishvanatha Temple.
Dhanga’s successor Ganda appears to have retained the territory he inherited. His son Vidyadhara killed the Pratihara king of Kannauj (possibly Rajyapala) for fleeing his capital instead of fighting the Ghaznavid invader Mahmud of Ghazni. Mahmud later invaded Vidyadhara’s kingdom; according to the Muslim invaders, this conflict ended with Vidyadhara paying tribute to Mahmud. Vidyadhara is noted for having commissioned the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple.
Decline
By the end of Vidyadhara’s reign, the Ghaznavid invasions had weakened the Chandela kingdom. Taking advantage of this, the Kalachuri king Gangeya-deva conquered eastern parts of the kingdom Chandela inscriptions suggest that Vidyadhara’s successor Vijayapala (r. c. 1035-1050 CE) defeated Gangeya in a battle. However, the Chandela power started declining during the Vijayapala’s reign. The Kachchhapaghatas of Gwalior probably gave up their allegiance to the Chandelas during this period.
Vijayapala’s elder son Devavavarman was subjugated by Gangeya’s son Lakshmi-Karna. His younger brother Kirttivarman resurrected the Chandela power by defeating Lakshmi-Karna. Kirtivarman’s son Sallakshanavarman achieved military successes against the Paramaras and the Kalachuris, possibly by raiding their territories. A Mau inscription suggests that he also conducted successful campaigns in the Antarvedi region (the Ganga-Yamuna doab). His son Jayavarman was of religious temperament and abdicated the throne after being tired of governance.
Jayavarman appears to have died heirless, as he was succeeded by his uncle Prithvivarman, the younger son of Kirttivarman.The Chandela inscriptions do not ascribe any military achievements to him; it appears that he was focused on maintaining the existing Chandela territories without adopting an aggressive expansionist policy.
Revival
By the time Prithvivarman’s son Madanavarman (r. c. 1128–1165 CE) ascended the throne, the neighbouring Kalachuri and Paramara kingdoms had been weakened by enemy invasions. Taking advantage of this situation, Madanavarman defeated the Kalachuri king Gaya-Karna, and possibly annexed the northern part of the Baghelkhand region. However, the Chandelas lost this territory to Gaya-Karna’s successor Narasimha. Madanavarman also captured the territory on the western periphery of the Paramara kingdom, around Bhilsa (Vidisha). This probably happened during the reign of the Paramara king Yashovarman or his son Jayavarman. Once again, the Chandelas could not retain the newly annexed territory for long, and the region was recaptured by Yashovarman’s son Lakshmivarman.
Jayasimha Siddharaja, the Chaulukya king of Gujarat, also invaded the Paramara territory, which was located between the Chandela and the Chaulukya kingdoms. This brought him in conflict with Madanavarman. The result of this conflict appears to have been inconclusive, as records of both the kingdoms claim victory. A Kalanjara inscription suggests that Madanavarman defeated Jayasimha. On the other hand, the various chronicles of Gujarat claim that Jayasimha either defeated Madanavarman or extracted a tribute from him.Madanavarman maintained friendly relations with his northern neighbours, the Gahadavalas.
Final decline
Paramardi (reigned c. 1165-1203 CE) ascended the Chandela throne at a young age. While the early years of his reign were peaceful, around 1182-1183 CE, the Chahamana ruler Prithviraj Chauhan invaded the Chandela kingdom. According to the medieval legendary ballads, Prithviraj’s army lost its way after a surprise attack by Turkic forces, and unknowingly camped at the Chandela capital Mahoba. This led to a brief conflict between the Chandelas and the Chauhans, before Prithviraj left for Delhi. Sometime later, Prithviraj invaded the Chandela kingdom and sacked Mahoba. Paramardi cowardly took shelter in the Kalanjara fort. The Chandela force, led by Alha, Udal and other generals, was defeated in this battle. According to the various ballads, Paramardi either committed suicide out of shame or retired to Gaya.
Prithviraj Chauhan’s raid of Mahoba is corroborated by his Madanpur stone inscriptions. However, there are several instances of historical inaccuracies in the bardic legends. For example, it is known that Paramardi did not retire or die immediately after the Chauhan victory. He restored the Chandela power, and ruled as a sovereign until around 1202-1203 CE, when the Ghurid governor of Delhi invaded the Chandela kingdom. According to Taj-ul-Maasir, a chronicle of the Delhi Sultanate, Paramardi surrendered to the Delhi forces. He promised to pay tribute to the Sultan, but died before he could keep this promise. His dewan offered some resistance to the invading forces, but was ultimately subdued. The 16th century historian Firishta states that Paramardi was assassinated by his own minister, who disagreed with the king’s decision to surrender to the Delhi force.
The Chandela power did not fully recover from their defeat against the Delhi forces. Paramardi was succeeded by Trailokyavarman, Viravarman and Bhojavarman. The next ruler Hammiravarman (r. c. 1288-1311 CE) did not use the imperial title Maharajadhiraja, which indicates that the Chandela king had a lower status by his time. The Chandela power continued to decline because of the rising Muslim influence, as well as the rise of other local dynasties, such as the Bundelas, the Baghelas and the Khangars.
Chandela architecture
The name Khajuraho is derived from its Sanskrit nomenclature ‘Kharjuravahaka’ which is the confluence of two Sanskrit words ‘Kharjur’ meaning date palm and ‘Vahaka’ meaning bearer. There are about 25 temples spread over an area of approximately 6 square Km. The temples are grouped into three categories depending on their orientation – the Western Group of Temples, the Eastern Group of Temples and the Southern Group of Temples. These temples are dedicated to several Hindu Gods and Goddesses along with deities in Jain beliefs. Among the temples that are standing till now, 6 are dedicated to Lord Shiva, 8 to Lord Vishnu, 1 each to Lord Ganesha and the Sun God, while 3 are dedicated to Jain Tirthankaras. The largest of the temples is the Kandariya Mahadeo Temple that is dedicated to the glory of lord Shiva. It makes Khajuraho one of the four holy sites dedicated to the glory of Lord Shiva, the other three being Gaya, Kashi and Kedarnath.
The temples are known for their elaborate and intricate carvings and sculpture. While these sculptures depict various scenes from everyday lives, the Khajuraho temples are primarily known for the artful and erotic depiction of the female form as well as various sexual practices of the time.
The four Jain temples are primarily located among the eastern group of temples. The Parasvanath, Adinath, Shantinath and Ghantai temples are the ones dedicated to worshipping of the Jain Trithankaras. These temples were constructed by the Chandela rulers in deference to the flourishing practice of Jainism in central India during their rule.
The temples of Khajuraho were commissioned by the Rajput rulers of Chandella Dynasty who ruled over central India from the 10th to the 13th Century CE. The temples were built over a period of 100 years and it is believed that each Chandela ruler commissioned at least one temple in the complex during his lifetime. The temples were built about 57 Km from the city of Mahoba, the capital of the Chandela dynasty rulers. Most of the present-day surviving temples were built during the reigns of king Yashovarman and Dhangadeva. Historical accounts of Abu Rihan-al-Biruni describe the temple complex of Khajuraho from towards the end of 11th century, when Mahmud of Ghazi attacked Kalinjar. The Kings struck a deal with Mahmud by paying a ransom that prevented him from looting the temples.
Throughout the 12th century, the temple complex grew and actively tended to till the downfall of the Chandela Dyanasty at the hands of the Sultan of Delhi, Qutb-ud-din Aibak. During the subsequent centuries, the region was largely controlled by Muslim rulers. Some temples were desecrated by the Muslim conquerors but the temples of Khajuraho were left largely neglected owing to their remote location.
In 1830, the British surveyor, T.S. Burt rediscovered the temples and efforts were made towards their excavation and restoration. Accounts of foreign travellers like Ibn Batutta and archaeologists like Alexander Cunningham presented the great artistic character of the temples to the world making it one of the most visited tourist attractions in India.
The Kalinjar region of Bundelkhand is home to superior quality sandstone that was primarily used as building material for the Khajuraho temples except the Chusat Yogini temple which is completely made of granite. The foundations of the temples were made of granite but are mostly hidden from the view. Stonemasons used the mortise and tenon joints to put the blocks of stones together which were then held in place by gravity. The columns and epistyles were built from single monoliths to afford maximum stability. The sculptures were done on sandstones that allowed very precise carving, resulting in production of fine details with ease.
The Chausat Yogini temple was the first of the temples to be built among the temples still standing; it was built around late 9th century. Yashovarman, also known as Lakshmanvarman, ruled between 925 and 950 CE and commissioned the famous Lakshman Temple. King Dhangadeva, son of Lakshmanvarman, commissioned the two most well-known Shiva temples, the Vishwanath Temple and the Vidyanath Temple. He also commissioned the Parasvanath Temple for the Jain worshippers. The largest of the temples in Khajuraho is the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple built during the rule of King Gandadeva between 1017 and 1029 CE. Other smaller temples like the Jagadambi, Chaturbhuj. Dulhadeo etc. had maintained the same level of artistic details in the carvings as the bigger temples. Only exceptions are the Javari and the Brahma temples, which are devoid of such elaborate adornments.
The temples are clustered near water bodies, as is traditional for most Hindu temples. The complex originally had around 64 water bodies, 56 out of which have been identified by archeologists during various excavations. Currently three water bodies including a river are part of the complex – Sib Sagar, Khajur Sagar or Ninora Tal and Khudar Nadi.
Architecture of Temples
The temples are grouped according to their location within the complex into three clusters. First is the western group of temples comprising of the Lakshmana Temple, Kandariya Mahadeo Temple, Devi Jagadambi Temple, Chausat Yogini Temple, Chitragupta Temple, Matangeshwara Temple, Varaha Temple and Vishwanath Temple. The Eastern Group of Temples includes the Parasvanath Temple, Ghantai Temple, Adinath Temple, Hanuman Temple, Brahma Temple, Vamana Temple and Javari Temple. The third and comparatively smaller group of temples id the Southern Temples Group include the Dulhadev Temple, Beejamandal Temple and Chaturbhuj or Jatkari Temple.
The design of the temples echo the Hindu mandala design principle of square and circles and laid out in a pentagon formed by convergence of three triangles, reciprocating the concept of ‘Panchbhut’ or five elements and ‘Trilokin’ or three realms. The principle of ‘Vastu-Purusha-Mandala’ is followed in the design of the temples. The Vastu or the structure in symmetrical, concentrically layered, and self-repeating design of the mandala is laid out encircling the Purusha or the deity in the central inner sanctum. The temples consists of several repetitive architectural elements that are listed below :
Adhishsthana or the Base Platform: Generally made of a solid block of granite laid out to hold the structure’s weight and also accentuate the temples upward thrust.
Shringa or Central Tower :The whole temple structure is capped by an elevated structure that towers directly over the site where the deity is placed inside.
Urushringa or Secondary Tower: the Shringa is often surrounded by smaller similarly designed towers around it known as Urushringa. These help in emphasizing the height of the structure.
The shringa is often topped with a stone disk with ridges on the sides known as the amalaka which in turn is crowned with a kalasha or the finial from where the banner is flown. The amalaka represents the sun. The entrance porch or the Ardhamandapa leads to the main hall of the temple or the Mandapa and in case of bigger temples it leads to the Mahamandapa or the Great Hall. Elaborate pillars generally adorn the Mahamandapa with carving and sculptures. From the hall there is usually an ambulatory space on both sides surrounding the Inner Sanctum or the Garbhagriha where the temples’ primary deity is situated. These ambulatory spaces allow devotees to perform the ritual circumambulation of the deity in clockwise direction known as Pradakshina. The temple’s Garbhagriha contains either stone sculpture or relief or image of the deity. The word ‘garbha’ refers to womb and the inner sanctum represents all the things that it stands for – potential, secret, and a space for development. The deity is place directly below the highest point of the structure.
Art and sculpture
The main attraction of the Khajuraho temples is the beautifully intricate carvings and sculptures that adorn the temples’ outer walls. These sculptures were often inspired by religious sensibilities of the kings or may be from various Vedic literatures and even from the traditional lifestyle in the day-to-day life. The sculptures are curved in strict accordance with the Shilpashastra that governed the various aspects of correct depiction of a deity or female forms. The sculptures display various levels of perfection and artfulness.
The temples of Parasvanatha, Vishwanatha and Lakshmana display sculptures in most classical forms that follow the dictated guidelines of proportions and adornments. From there, a gradual increase in artistic touch is evident in the sculptures of the Citragupta and Jagadambi temples.
The beauty and elegance of the sculptures reach their zenith in the Kandariya Mahadeo temple, where the human form attains perfect physiognomy. The figures here attain distinctively slender forms with a wide variety among elegantly posing Apsara figures. This sculpture style is evident in the Vamana and Adinatha temples as well.
The decline in the refinement of the art form is evident from the sculptures of Javari and Chaturbhuja temples. The figures appear lifeless and conventionalized. The scene gets slightly better in Dulhadeo with a combination of dynamic yet romantic forms depicting elaborate ornaments.
The general theme running through the sculptural carvings are examples from the four necessary pursuits of life which are Artha, Kama, Dharma and Moksha. About 10% of the total sculptures in Khajuraho depict erotic and explicit imagery which is the main attraction for people from all over the world. The Chandela rulers were believed to be followers of tantric practices which involved practicing of various sexual rituals. The sculptures depict men and women, together referred to as Mithunas, engaged in various forms of sexual acts according to the descriptions provided in the Kamasutra.
Other sculptures depict scenes from various stages of human life as well as various day-to-day activities performed by men and women. Considering the positioning and proportion of erotic sculpture among others, a natural philosophical conclusion may be drawn. One must go through the various worldly pursuits like physical pursuits or Kaam before they can get jaded of them and are ready to join the quest of true knowledge or Gyan. As a powerful symbolism, these erotic sculptures are placed mostly on the outer walls of the temples which imply that one must leave all erotic thoughts outside before entering the statuary of God.